The Postive and Negative Social, Educational and Health...

THE POSTIVE AND NEGATIVE SOCIAL, EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF CELL PHONES ON TEENAGERS By Agshin Alizada For the course HSB 4MI Presented to Miss Dahl BLUEVALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE Table of Contents Page 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Discussion ` 4 2.1 Positive and Negative Social Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers 4 2.2 Positive and Negative Educational Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers 5 2.3 Positive and Negative Health Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers 7 3.0 Summary 9 4.0 Conclusion 10 5.0 References†¦show more content†¦(â€Å"American Osteopathic Association,† n.d). Even though there are negative social effects of cell phones on teenagers such as cyberbullying there are positive advantages as well. An obvious advantage of a mobile phone is that it can help teens to communicate with others. If a teenager was lost perhaps he or she can seek help immediately by a cell phone at any time, in any place and cell phones also allow its users to make long distance calls which makes it a lot easier for them to communicate with friends and family who are distant. With cell phones video and camera functions, teens now have more opportunities to record and report any criminal events which they have witnessed. These pieces of evidence could greatly help authorities solve crimes faster (Baker 2012). Cell phones are very useful devices for communication as well as they are compulsory as they used as safety devices especially in emergencies (Ravidchandran, 2009). Therefore it is important to understand the social effects of cell phones on teenagers because although it could harm teenager’s development, it can also benefit as well as provide safety and security for the child. 2.2 Positive and Negative Educational Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers Secondly, the topic of cell phones affecting teenagers’ education is very controversial. Cell phones can be a major distraction to learning when

Women Suffrage Movement Essay - 1806 Words

Today, we take for granted what our ancestors accomplished for us. Day by day we exercise our rights as humans that were fought for. Until 1920, women were not allowed to vote. They were seen as humans that belonged at home to do housework and cook meals for their families. They had no say in what went on around them and had to endure the discrimination that women weren’t capable of anything. It had always been a fight for women to be seen as equal and still is today. When exactly did the movement for women’s suffrage begin and become national? It dates as far back as 1848 when the first convention was initiated. If you do the math that means it took around 70 years for women to accomplish what they were fighting for, the right to vote.†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"In 1893 to 1896, the newest states Wyoming, Colorado, Utah and Idaho amended their state constitutions to include women’s suffrage† (Lewis). This was a step in the right direction. The or ganization kept working hard and organized tons of campaigns to get the movement on state ballots, however, every time they were on the ballots they did not go through. As of 1906, the leaders who started the movement had all passed away. In spite of this, from 1910 to 1912 Washington State, California, Michigan, Kansas, Oregon, and Arizona had all approved of women’s suffrage (Lewis). The states passing these laws created a fear in the Southern states that this progression in the movement would impact the voting rights for African Americans. The end of this large organization was near and a new organization created by Lucy Burns and Alice Paul called the Congressional Committee had been created within NAWSA and was later called the National Woman’s Party. In 1872, Susan B. Anthony was arrested after voting illegally in the presidential election. She was fined $100 but refused to pay. Not only did she refuse but she spoke out to everyone about it. â€Å"‘Friends and fellow citizens: I stand before you tonight under indictment for the alleged crime of having voted at the last presidential election, without having a lawful right to vote. It shall be my work this evening to prove to you that in thus voting, I not only committed no crime, but, instead, simplyShow MoreRelatedRalph Waldo Emersons Connection To Transcendentalism1223 Words   |  5 PagesWaldo Emerson who was part of the Transcendentalist movement which geared philosophical thinking that involved viewing women as equal. Philip F. Gura, Transcendentalism and Social Reform, History Now, assessed May 14, 2017, https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/first-age-reform/essays/transcendentalism-and-social-reform. 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Westling English III 13 October 2017  Outline Thesis Statement: Due to the Hardiments of Determined Females, Because of their Hostile feelings towards Woman Suffrage, Society began to view them as a part of the Union. Introduction I. Suppressed Women of the 19th Century Women s Role in Society Woodrow Wilson s Beliefs. The Society s beliefs on Woman Suffrage II. Woman Suffrage Movement Susan Brownell Anthony s contribution CarrieRead MoreA Timeline of Gendered Movements849 Words   |  3 PagesGendered Movements 1. Timeline 1869 Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton create the National Woman Suffrage Association. They intend that the institution would change the way that the masses perceive women in general. The main purpose of the group is to relate to the Constitution as one of the documents emphasizing that Congress should allow women to be provided with voting rights. 1890 The National Woman Suffrage Association becomes more powerful as it merges with the American Women SuffrageRead MoreThe Women s Suffrage Movement Essay1153 Words   |  5 PagesFor decades, women struggled to gain their suffrage, or right to vote. The women’s suffrage movement started in the decades before the Civil War, and eventually accomplished its goal in the year of 1920 when the 19th Amendment was ratified into the U.S. Constitution. After the U.S. Civil War, the women’s suffrage movement gained popularity and challenged traditional values and sexism in the country; the increase of progressive social values benefited the women suffragists by allowing them to succeedRead More The First World War and Womens Suffrage in Britain Essay1743 Words   |  7 Pagesfor feminism in Britain. The suffrage movement began as a struggle to achieve equal rights for women in 1872. Women then became active in their quest for political recognition, which they finally obtaine d in 1928. This investigation assesses the question: To what extent did the First World War lead to the accomplishment of the women’s suffrage movement of Britain in 1928? Two of the sources used in the essay, The Women’s Suffrage: a short history of a great Movement by Millicent Garrett FawcettRead MoreDefining Class And Social Structure Of Social Class1048 Words   |  5 Pages The challenging nature of class in contemporary society comes from the fact that there has never been an academic consensus the definition of class (due to the fact that class in its very nature is an abstract and subjective term). However, this essay will argue that class is an amalgamation of how individuals and the collective locate themselves, and the relational explanation of economic life chance as well as policy and politics. 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The Case of a Library Automation Project Free Sample for Students

Question: Discss about the case of a Library Automation Project using Open Source Software Called Koha. Answer: Introduction This report covers the case of a library automation project using open source software called Koha. The system involves management of acquisition control, circulation, cataloguing, serials control, and classification. Development of a web based system is proposed with all these modules. The proposal includes planning, design, and implementation. This paper explores the need for automation in library, its benefits for library management systems, challenges to adoption, and the requirements for development of such a system. Based on these understanding, a system of library management is proposed in the study taking the case of one of the library systems. The project proposed includes planning, designing, and development of this library system. Literature Review Automation is process which makes use of systems that can save human time and energy allowing them to enhance their contribution. In 1880, Hollerith invented punching cards that were used for tabulating the census in USA. University of Texas was the fist educational institutor that used punch cards for controlling circulation of their books. By 1950, Library congress began to use them for production of catalogues and soon after that many libraries in the country started to adapt to these. This was seen as a process of automation as simplified the work of people working in that librarian. The next wave of automation came in the library systems with introduction of computer base systems in 1960s and some new ventures like MEDLARS and MARC came into space. In early 1990s, readable catalogues were formed for library automation and the systems were majorly used for management of housekeeping operations in library management. Past decade saw major transformation in library automation systems from management of general resources to providing access to particular resources and with addition of global networking through the use of internet technologies, newer technology solutions were incorporated into library systems. Today, integrated library systems exist that did not only help automate the traditional library functions but also connected library systems with multiple databases, suppliers and internet resources to provide a wide range of resources for access(Faisal B.Surendran, 2008). With automation systems, libraries are made more independent and borderless as a huge number of resources can be integrated to add to the information. Key objectives of automation of library are improvement of accommodations of information, reduction of cost by elimination of duplication, improvement of access through resource sharing, and improvement in control through the use of an efficient storage and retrieval system. Some common functions of library system are now managed with automation systems such as acquisition, description, analysis, displaying, organizing, preservation of resources, and access to resources. This resulted into emergence of many library formats such as subject portals, open access repositories, and digital libraries. Automation in library is nothing but establishing a connection between libraries, information centers, databases, peer groups, search engines, and peer groups. The systems need to be interpretable in different settings. To establish this interconnectivity, various set of hardware and software systems may be used enabling use of multiple resources and exchange of data between different systems. Library systems operate following certain global standards like metadata standards, communication standards, content standards, interpretability standards, and information exchange standards. MARC-21 is one such metadata standard that is used for presentation of authority data, bibliographical data, and holdings data. Use of these standards offer certain advantages for library systems such as efficient cataloguing, accuracy of catalogues, consistency with use of authority files, exchange between different libraries using commonly understandable format, etc. However, library automation systems development and adoption have to face certain barriers like lack of direction, technical training of staff, communication, staff inputs, and feedback mechanisms. Some library systems are already established and there are plans for their migration to second generation library management systems. Migrations are simpler than new implementations as people would already have an understanding of basic systems and they are easier to understand and adopt. However, some librarians say that even migrations require change of procedures which can cause technostress on staff(Bales, 1999). There are some basic requirement of any library system that include adequate collection, financial assistance, hardware, software, staff training, maintenance, and development. The library software need to have some provisions for library management system such as knowledge expulsions, information in electronic formats, resource sharing, internet applications, and so on. Housekeeping activities that are majorly automated in library systems include acquisition of materials, circulation of indexed materials, cataloguing of materials for lending to patrons, serial control for magazines and newspapers, OPAC public user interface, and administration(Deshpande, 2013). A library system can either have a functional structure or a divisional structure. A divisional structure involves a number of processing departments with each having a discrete function. This type of structure is more popular in old libraries that have identified departments for managing books, manuscripts, and maps. Within this divisional structure, there could be several different patterns such as division based on subjects; division based on the country of the origin of the booked catalogued, and so on. A functional structure on the other hand involves structural units formation based on books succession in the system. In this structure, staff members can develop high expertise in specific area of processing. Moreover, with this structure some economy would be achieved as one person would be doing only one process but for a large number of resources(COTTA-SCHNBERG, 1989). Business Case Study A case of library automation of Bharathidasan University can be taken as a foundation in which KohaLibrary Integrated Open Sourcesoftware was used for implementing an automated solution for managing the resources of the school. The developed system was able to manage the book circulation, had the ability to identify and generate a list of overdue books, impose penalties for delays, and so on. This model can be taken as a learning base for development of any kind of automated library system. The system involved acquisition control, circulation, cataloguing, serials control, and classification. An Integrated Library System (ILS)library system which more like an Enterprise Resource planning system for the library was developed. The system developed utilized Koha open source software and MySQL database. Two disk raid1 systems were used as hardware for maintaining redundancy in case of failure. The file system also used partitioning which also added to the redundancy. A website was designed in which there was a home page created containing links to all sections including circulation, patrons information, catalogue search, administrative tools, and about Koha. Koha system of library automation had a range of modules that took care of different functionalities of the system(Ratha, 2015). Administrative Module: An administrative module was developed in the intranet module of Koha that could be used for defining different types of functional parameters including branches, book funds, item types, borrower categories, currencies, charges, and so on. System Preferences Module: System preferences module took care of the administration and maintenance of the library and was only accessible to the Chief administrator. Acquisition Module: Koha had two modes of acquisition. One, simple that did not keep track of budget and normal which kept track of budget. Simple budget was useful for small libraries where the acquisition budget was limited. This module also allowed for search of suppliers who could deliver required books to the library. Budget and Funds Module: Through this module, funds were allotted to different categories of library items and the system stored information like book fund number, fund name, period, and total budget. Biblio Framework Module: It maintained bibliographic records of documents in the library. Book details could be entered to create a new entry and number tags could be attached for each entry for easy search. Patrons module: In this module, particulars of the library members could be entered into the system including joining date, expiry date, borrower type, and other membership information. Administrator could edit the borrower type, search for members, and add new members. Circulation Module: This module was used for assigning new students or allowing them to renew their subscriptions. The module required entering of borrower card number or names to see the membership information and if the member wanted to issue a book, he could enter the scan or enter the bar code and select date of issue to issue a book. The same module was also used for returning the borrowed books. Accounts and reports module: This module had the details of payments, overdue, written of amounts, fines imposed, fines paid, fines due, etc. Koha Tools Module: This module allowed import and export of functions like bibliography and patron information. Various functions in the tool could be used to label patron, create card, upload patron image, issue overdue notices, etc(Amekuedee, 2006). OPAC Module: This tool was connected with the MySQL database and allowed filtered searches by entering keywords, book title, subject, author, or barcode of the book. Upon implementation of the library management system, the university had a single database for all the Chemistry library collections and the management had full control over it. Faculty members and students when using library management system to search books, issue them, check borrowed books status, get book details, download bibliography, and go to other department libraries. While implementing the library management system in the university, there were some challenges faced because of lack of infrastructure facility, environmental support, and financial resources(Neelakandan.B, et al., 2010). Justification Automation of library is a process in which computer systems are used to satisfy the needs of a library. Computer systems can help provide fast and easy access to library resources, save time, increase the speed of library administrative operations, and the use of resources. Teachers, students and the learning community can be served better with the use of Library Management systems. Moreover library automation systems also allow scope for customization of services(Ubogu Okiy, 2011). Project Scope The project would involve planning, designing and implementation of an automated library management system for the university. Planning: This would involve formation of a model for modernization of the library. It would involve listing of all the items with identification of prioritized information systems. These identified items or procedures would then be subdivided into functional elements. The main items would include acquisitions, cataloguing, circulation, serials control, reference services, bibliographic database, and user services(R.VENUS, 2012). Designing: This would involve designing of the structure of the library management system including position and connections between management modules, database server, networking, and user machines. Implementation: For managing each of these modules, the library would require automation software which can either be commercial like SOUL, LIBSYS, AUTOLIB, and EASYLIBSOFT or open source such as KOHA, WINISIS, EVERGREEN, OPEN BIBLIO, and DSpace(Breeding, 2008). Problem Identification Libraries are growing in numbers and a large number of books and reference materials are being stocked by colleges and universities that are used by students, teachers, and research communities. There is a need to organize these collections, retrieve information about them and provide the same to a person interested in borrowing books from library. Various information needs have risen in library management including(Zach, 2006): Maintaining of bibliographic records Building of catalogue for user access Reduction of duplication of operations Preparing different types of reports Maintaining of circulation of books Maintaining different types of materials To allow sharing of resources To improve the quality and speed of operations To enhance the operational efficiencies of the system(Devi Raghuveer, 2014) All these requirements of the modern libraries can be fulfilled with the use of computer systems by developing library management systems. Critical Analysis There can be various types of challenges that can occur while planning to develop a library management system. One of the challenging task in library automation is transmission of the bibliographic records which can be simplified by the use of syndication. Developmental, functional, and operational challenges can occur if the ICT infrastructure is not sufficient, funding is not adequate or staffs is not skilled on the use of ICT systems(Dadzie Walt, 2015). A number of open source applications are available with two key modules provided in them including staff-client module and online public access catalogue module. OPAC allows users to carry out advanced searches and retrieve bibliographical records. Use of open source software can thus help to a great extent as it would at least minimize the requirement for funds that can be alternatively used for acquiring infrastructure or training staff(Ahenkorah-Marfo Borteye, 2010). The objectives of most library automation applications are allowing users to register, access library materials, borrow, locate, return them, and allow administration to calculate overdue. Library automation not just allows keeping records of books but can also be used for handling of books through the use of robotic systems(Khurshid, 2003). Project Brief The project would involve planning, design, and implementation of a library management system which would be developed using open source software applications. The first step would be to explore the requirements of the library and then various open source software options would be explored so that a final selection can be made for implementation. A structure of the library automation system would be made using which the implementation process would be carried out. Various module requirements and feature requirements would then be studied and individual modules inside the open source software would then be utilized for creation of desired module for library management system. This would be connected to a back end database of the library which would be developed over OPAC. With modules identified, different user interfaces for students, administrators, staff and teachers would be developed with different access rights for different groups of users(Kinner Rigda, 2009). Conclusion This report was a proposal made for the development of an automated library management system. It was found that a lot of universities and colleges have a large number of stock of books maintained that are used by students, faculties, and research communities and require an organized way to manage them. Library management systems can be used to allow basic functions as well as simplify processes in many other ways and provide additional services to the users. There are various open source applications available for developing such a system that can be used for developing library management systems at low cost. Some common functions that every library would need to be developed using these implementations include acquisition, control, circulation, cataloguing, serials control, and classification. It was found that universities can receive a variety of benefits and can provide more flexible and customized services to its library users through the use of automated systems. References Ahenkorah-Marfo, M., Borteye, E. M. (2010). Networking the Library Catalogue: Lessons from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Library, Kumasi, Ghana. Ghana Library Journal , 20 (1), 1-21. Amekuedee, J. (2006). An evaluation of library automation in some Ghanaian university libraries. The Electronic Library , 23 (4), 442-451. Bales, A. (1999). Library Automation and Organizational Change. Catherine Collins. Breeding, M. (2008). Open Source Library Automation: Overview and Perspective. ALA Techsource. COTTA-SCHNBERG, M. V. (1989). Automation and Academic Library Structure. Libri. Dadzie, P. S., Walt, T. v. (2015). Planning for Digitization of University Libraries in Ghana: Challenges and Prospects. University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Deshpande, J. (2013). Library Automation in the Academic Institutions . International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) , 1500-1501. Devi, G. R., Raghuveer, K. (2014). Hardware and Software Selection for Library Automation. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) , 3 (12), 1872-1876. Faisal, S. L., B.Surendran. (2008). Report on Automation of Library at Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom Thiruvananthapuram. Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom. Khurshid, Z. (2003). A survey of the Arabian Gulf library automation marketplace. Electronic Library Information Systems , 37 (4), 226-233. Kinner, L., Rigda, C. (2009). The integrated library system: from daring to dinosaur. Journal of Library Adminstration , 49 (4), 406. Neelakandan.B, Duraisekar.S, Balasubramani.R, SrinivasaRagavan.S. (2010). Implementation of Automated LibraryManagementSystem in theSchoolofChemistry BharathidasanUniversityusing KohaOpen SourceSoftware. INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFAPPLIED ENGINEERINGRESEARCH , 1 (1), 149-167. R.VENUS. (2012). DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF LIBRARY AUTOMATION USING KOHA (Open Source Software) AT BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, PERAMBALU. TIRUCHIRAPALLI: BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY. Ratha, B. (2015). Library Automation: Planning and Implementation. Indore: Devi Ahilya University. Ubogu, J. O., Okiy, R. (2011, August 27). Sources of funds in academic libraries in Delta State, Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice , pp. 1-12. Zach, L. (2006). Using a multiple-case studies design to investigate the information-seeking behavior of Arts Administrators. Library Trends , 4-21.

Methods of Genetic Mapping-Free-Samples-Myassignmentshelp.com

Question: Using the data generated from the fly lab, Compare all and match brown (eyecolour) gene to two its closest genes. Answer: Introduction To fully understand genetics we need to know the various terminologies found in the unit. All living things have genes. They are the specific information encoded for a particular trait. Genes are located on the chromosomes. Each gene occupies a specific location known as Loci. Human beings have a total of twenty-three chromosomes. The first twenty-two is located in the somatic cells. They are known as autosomes. They are diploid in number. The twenty-third chromosome is found in the gametes. They are known as sex chromosomes. They are responsible for sex determination. They are haploid in number. The outward appearance of an organism is known as its phenotype. The genetic composition of an organism is known as its genotype. Each individual organism has a specific genotype and phenotype throughout its lifetime. The specific form of a gene for studying genetics is known as alleles. For each trait, an organism has two forms of the allele. If the alleles are the same type then the organism is said to be homozygous. If the alleles are different types the organism is said to be heterozygous (Orel, 1984). There are two different types of genes, dominant gene, and recessive genes. Dominant genes are genes that are expressed irrespective of being homozygous or heterozygous. Recessive genes are genes whose effect is sometimes masked and not expressed. These genes are only expressed in the heterozygous state. The character of a gene is determined by the nature of the gene or the allele. A trait is a particular form of character. For example, a character could be eye color and the trait is the different forms of color, for example, white or red color (Orel, 1984). Mendel, the father of genetics, developed a means to study genes through monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, trihybrid cross and the use of a chi square. Mendel also discovered that a gene separates individually during a cross such that the offspring will have one gene from each parent. This is the law of segregation. He also discovered that a gene is expressed independently of other factors surrounding it. This is the law of independent assortment. The law of probability states that the probability of simultaneous occurrence of two independent events equals to the product of the probability of their separate occurrence (Stern, 1966). There are different methods of mapping. This includes the use of Mendel's cross, use of a punnet square and use of a chi-square. Mendel's cross is used in determining the monohybrid inheritance. They are simple and can the results are accurate. A punnet square is used for obtaining dihybrid inheritance. The punnet square drawn and using simple mathematics results of the offspring is obtained. The chi-square considers the possibility of any deviation of a ratio and the size of a given sample and expressed this data as a single value Aims To understand fully the relationship between the organisms phenotype and its genotype. To be able to show monohybrid inheritance and dihybrid inheritance. To use genetic crosses to locate the position of a gene. To show the use of statistical methods to approve or disapprove a hypothesis To stimulate practically the Mendel inheritance Results Assignment 1: Monohybrid, Dihybrid, and trihybrid inheritance. Monohybrid inheritance is an inheritance performed involving one gene loci. Two parents with particular traits are crossed and the result obtains results in offspring with certain traits. It is performed using Mendel's cross. A dihybrid cross refers to an inheritance involving two gene loci. The results are obtained using a punnet square. Dihybrid inheritance results in complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance (Soudek, 1984). In this experiment, cross a wild type female with a male with white eyes. Observe the F1 and F2 generation. The results for the monohybrid inheritance after crossing the homozygous wild type red eye and the homozygous white eyes is that the F generation has red eyes. This means that the gene for red eyes is dominant over the gene for white eyes. The F2 generation obtained showed that the offspring that both red eyes and white eyes in the ratio of 3:1. The genotype however varied in the ratio of 1:2:1. This further proved that the gene for red eyes is dominant over the gene for white eyes. The results of the dihybrid inheritance are that the F1 generation is heterozygous for each of the two pairs of a gene. This is because both parents were homozygous. Selfing the F1 generation resulted in the F2 generation. The phenotypic ratio was 9:3;3:1. This ratio showed complete dominance. If there was incomplete dominance the phenotypic ratio would be 3:6:3:1:2:1. Co-dominance is when the crossing of two traits results in a completely new trait that is not found in either of the parents. In incomplet e dominance, the phenotype is an intermediate of the two traits (Soudek, 1984). None of the alleles is expressed Assignment 2.Test cross This is a cross used to determine the genotype of an unknown crossing. In this type of cross, an individual of dominant phenotype is crossed with another of unknown genotype. It is used to determine whether an individual is heterozygous or homozygous for a particular character. In this experiment, cross a female with brown eye color and a male with ebony body color. Note the results. Also, cross a male with brown eye color and ebony body color with a female that is wild type. Observe and record the data obtained. The results show that if the unknown is homozygous the offspring have the same phenotype. If the unknown is heterozygous the resulting offspring have a phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1 Assignment 3: Lethal genes. These are genes which when expressed the effects kill the organism. The genes may be dominant or recessive. The organism hardly reaches maturity. Lethal genes result in the death of an offspring thus reducing the number of offspring drastically. The new phenotypic ratio is 2:1. In this experiment, design a cross between two flies with asterapedia mutation for antennae. Observe and record. Set up a control using a fruit fly that is wild type and another that has asterapedia mutations for the antennae. This will help prove that the lethal gene is recessive in nature. The experiment shows that the lethal gene is recessive in the fruit fly. The gene results in death. However, the offspring survive if the gene is heterozygous hence it is not expressed by the individual. The offspring can live a normal life. The phenotypic ratio of the experiment was 2:1. One offspring were homozygous for the lethal gene (Russell, 2006). Assignment 4: Epistasis The effect of one gene is masked or not expressed due to the presence of another non-allelic gene. This is against Mendel's law of independent assortment. The gene may be affected due to the physical environment. In this experiment, design a cross with a female fruit fly that has vestigial wing size and a male fruit fly that has incomplete wing vein mutation. Observe and note down the results. Also set up another cross with a female with apterous wing size mutation and a male fruit fly with radius incomplete wing vein mutation (Russell, 2006). Observe and compare the two crosses. Note down the results. The result shows that one gene was not expressed due to the presence of a known allelic gene. The results are obtained using a punnet square. The phenotypic ratio is 9:3:4 Assignment 5: Sex linkage. An organism may be monoecious or dioecious. A monoecious is an organism which produces both the male and the female gametes in the same organism. A dioecious is an organism which the male and female gametes are found in different organisms. There are various sex systems. In the fruit fly, the have an XX-XY system the females are XX and the males are XY. This is similar to human beings and most mammals. Some gene may be carried on the sex chromosomes. This means that the genes will be inherited together with the genes for sex. In this experiment, design a cross for a female fruit fly with tan body and wild type male. Observe and note down the results obtained. Design another experiment between a female fruit fly with vestigial wing size mutation and a white eye type male fruit fly. Observe and record the results obtained. The result shows that some traits are found in females only and others in males only. Irrespective of whether the gene is dominant or recessive it will be expressed in the offspring. The result can be obtained using a simple Mendels cross. Assignment 6: recombination. During fertilization, the gene may undergo mutation and be recombined. In this experiment, design a cross for a female with an eyeless mutation for eye shape and a male with shaven bristles. Observe the results and note down The result shows that the genes underwent recombinatio Conclusion In conclusion, the various methods of genetic mapping yielded the same results. We use of Mendel's cross, use of punnet square or the chi-square depending on what results are needed. If statistical data is needed then a chi-square is used. We have also seen that two organisms can have the same phenotype but different genotype Genetic mapping has proved to be very important in todays society. In the field of medicine genetic mapping has been used to discover drugs that can treat diseases that were once incurable. This has greatly advanced the field of medicine. Genetic mapping has also been used to understand the root causes of diseases, for example, the sickle cell. This has helped to reduce the spread of the disease and has created awareness of particular environmental factors leading to diseases. Genetic mapping has also been used in developing strains of bacteria that can be used to generate bio fuel. Bio fuel is cheaper and easier to use. It is also environmentally friendly. The knowledge of genetic mapping is used by sewage companies and garbage disposal companies by using bacteria to degrade the waste resulting in an environmentally friendly of reducing the toxicity of waste. This is also a method of proper disposal of waste. In agriculture, genetic mapping has been used in developing new crops that are resistant to drought, pest, diseases and so much more. The new crops yield higher produce that is of a much more higher quality than regular crops. The technique has also been applied in livestock resulting in much more healthier livestock. The livestock produces better produce in terms of quality and quantity. This has greatly improved the field of agriculture. Genetic mapping has also been used in forensics. Today paternity test can be performed much more quickly and more efficiently due to the use of genetic mapping. It has also helped in identifying victims of burns. Sometime during a fire, some victims may be burned beyond recognition. Genetic mapping is used in identifying who the victims are and where are from. Other Experiments There were no other experiments performed at the moment. Researchers are still trying to understand Mendels inheritance Appendix In the fruit fly, primary on disjunction could occur. The gene responsible for the red eye color is found on the X chromosome hence it is a sex linked gene. The recessive gene for white eyes is found also on the X chromosome. white eyes are eyes with a bright red color and an ocellus that is colorless. A white female crossed with a red eye male will result in the F1 generation having red eyed females and white eyed males. This shows that the red eye is dominant. However, in some rare cases due to nondisjunction, this was not the case. Nondisjunction is the failure of the x chromosome to separate during fertilization. This results in an organism having an extra X chromosome or no X chromosome at all. Symbolizing X+ for red eyes and Xv for white eyes, and each of the autosomes as A. a cross between a white eyed female, AAXvXv and a red eye male AAX+Y, the result is as follows; AAXvX+ - red female AAXvY- white male AAXvXvX+- metafemale, rare dies AAXvXvY- white female (rare) AAX+O- sterile red male, rare AAYO- die early, rare The metafemale is weak and survives beyond the pupal stage. In the fruit fly, the sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosome cells. If there are more autosomes that X chromosomes the individual is male. If the X chromosomes are more or equal to autosomes the individual is female. The Y chromosomes have no function in gender and it only plays a role in fertility. References Orel V. New york: oxford university press 1984 Stern C and Sherwood E.R. the Origin Of Genetics. A Mendel source book. San Francisco: Freeman 1966 Soudek D. Gregor Mendel and the people around him. Am J. Hum Genet. May 1984 Russell P.J iGenetic. A molecular approach San Francisco: Benjamin Cunnings. 2006